Sexismo y tríada oscura de la personalidad en adolescentes: el rol mediador de la desconexión moral / Sexism and dark triad of personality on adolescents: the mediator role of moral disengagement

Resumen Introducción: La Organización Mundial de la Salud indica que es necesario eliminar los valores, las actitudes y los estereotipos basados en el género que afectan la salud y el bienestar de las niñas y mujeres en el mundo. Desde la psicología de la personalidad, algunos trabajos científicos han demostrado que rasgos como la triada oscura de la personalidad (maquiavelismo, psicopatía y narcisismo) y la desconexión moral aumentan la susceptibilidad al sesgo de género, la amenaza y la agresión interpersonal. Como contribución al diseño de un perfil personológico propenso a aceptar y justificar las actitudes sexistas, el objetivo principal de este trabajo fue estudiar el rol mediador de la desconexión moral entre la triada oscura de la personalidad y el sexismo ambivalente en adolescentes. Método: La muestra estuvo compuesta por 803 adolescentes (M = 15.33, DT = 0.99; 50.3% chicos) tras utilizar un muestreo por conveniencia para realizar un análisis de la varianza y la comparación de varios modelos mediacionales a partir de la técnica de bootstrapping. Resultados: Los rasgos de la triada oscura de la personalidad se relacionan directa y significativamente con el sexismo hostil y benevolente de los/as adolescentes, y la desconexión moral tiene un efecto mediador importante en esta relación. Conclusiones: Finalmente, se discute cómo trabajar la desconexión moral para la transformación de estas creencias y actitudes de género que perpetúan la discriminación hacia las adolescentes en programas de prevención.

Abstract Introduction: The World Health Organization indicates that gender-based values, attitudes and stereotypes that affect the health and well-being of girls and women around the world need to be eliminated. From personality psychology, scientific studies have shown that traits such as the dark personality triad (Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism) and moral disengagement increase susceptibility to gender bias, threat, and interpersonal aggression. As a contribution to the design of a personological profile prone to accept and justify sexist attitudes, the main aim of this paper was to study the mediating role of moral disengagement between the dark personality triad and ambivalent sexism in a sample of adolescents. Methods: The sample consisted of 803 adolescents (M = 15.33, SD = 0.99; 50.3% boys) using convenience sampling to assess ambivalent sexism, dark personality triad and moral disengagement. An analysis of variance and comparison of various mediational models was carried out using the bootstrapping technique. Results: The dark personality triad traits are directly and significantly related to adolescents' hostile and benevolent sexism, and that moral disengagement has a relevant mediating effect on this relationship. Conclusions: Finally, the implications of these findings for the transformation of these gendered beliefs and attitudes that perpetuate discrimination against girls and women are discussed in relation with prevention programs.

Dyadic Analysis of Emotional Intimate Partner Violence: An Estimation of Dyadic Patterns and Influencing Individual, Family, and Couple Factors

Background: The co-occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) has been usually determined by co-occurring reports of perpetration and victimization, but still not considering the interdependence of both members’ reports. The current research aimed to analyze the dyadic patterns of IPV perpetration and victimization, considering the influence of sexism toward women, family functioning, and relationship duration. Method: The sample involved 242 couples heterosexual couples. The Actor-Partner Interdependence Model was calculated to analyze the violent dynamics in the couple. For males, a couple-oriented pattern was identified, but for females the pattern was between couple-oriented and actor-only pattern. Results: These patterns remained stable when personal, family, and relational variables were included in the model, which present different effects on perpetration and victimization: males’ hostile sexism predicted higher levels of male IPV perpetration and victimization as well as higher levels of male and female victimization via male perpetration. Regarding family functioning, higher family good functioning predicted lower IPV perpetration in males and lower victimization in females. Finally, relationship length predicted higher levels of IPV perpetration of both couple members and higher victimization via perpetration. Conclusions: These results are discussed in light of the interdependence of couple members’ IPV perpetration and victimization. (AU)

Antecedentes: La coocurrencia de la violencia en la pareja (IPV) suele establecerse con el informe de ambos miembros de la pareja, pero rara vez se tiene en cuenta la interdependencia entre sus respuestas. El objetivo del trabajo ha sido analizar los patrones diádicos de la IPV teniendo en cuenta el sexismo hacia las mujeres, la funcionalidad familiar y la duración de la relación. Método: La muestra estaba compuesta por 242 parejas heterosexuales, utilizándose el Actor-Partner Interdependence Model para analizar los patrones diádicos. En el caso de los hombres se identificó el patrón orientado a la díada, mientras que el patrón de las mujeres parecía encontrarse entre el orientado a la díada y al actor. Resultados: Estos patrones se mantuvieron tras haber incluido el sexismo, el funcionamiento familiar y la duración de la relación: el sexismo hostil de los hombres predecía mayores niveles de perpetración en ellos y de victimización en ambos a través de la perpetración de los hombres. El buen funcionamiento familiar predecía una menor perpetración en los hombres y victimización en las mujeres. Finalmente la duración de la relación predijo mayores niveles de perpetración y victimización a través de la perpetración en ambos miembros de la pareja. Conclusiones: Se discuten los resultados a partir de la interdependencia de la IPV de ambos miembros de la pareja. (AU)

Propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente (ASI) en población adulta ecuatoriana

Objetivo. El objetivo del estudio fue realizar la validación del Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente (ASI) en el contexto ecuatoriano, así como analizar su consistencia interna y validez convergente con el Inventario de Ambivalencia hacia Hombres (AMI). Método. Participaron en el presente estudio, cuantitativo e instrumental, hombres (44.1%) y mujeres (55.9%) de la ciudad de Quito (N = 965) entre los 20 y los 60 años. Resultados. El ASI presenta un ajuste factorial adecuado al modelo original de dos factores; existe además consistencia interna en la escala total (w = .72) y en los dos factores (sexismo hostil: w = .71; sexismo benevolente: w = .53), y una validez convergente estadísticamente significativa con el AMI (r = .652). Se concluye que el instrumento es válido para uso en el contexto ecuatoriano.

Objective. The aim of the study was to validate the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) in the Ecuadorian context, as well as to analyze its internal consistency and convergent validity with the Ambivalence Inventory towards men (AMI). Method. Men (44.1%) and women (55.9%) from the city of Quito (N = 965), aged from 20 to 60 years old, participated in this quantitative and instrumental study. Results. The ASI presents an adequate factorial fit to the original two-factor model; there is internal consistency in the total scale (w = .72) and in the two factors (hostile sexism: w = .71; benevolent sexism: w = .53), and statistically significant convergent validity with the AMI (r = .652). It is concluded that the instrument use in the Ecuadorian context is valid.

El sexismo en las y los profesionales de salud mental: un factor de riesgo psicosocial para la detección de la desigualdad de género / Sexism in Mental Health Professionals: A Social Psychological Risk Factor for Detecting Gender Inequality

Diversos organismos recomiendan a las y los profesionales de salud superar las propias creencias sexistas y apuntan a la importancia de abordar la desigualdad de género. En este sentido, este trabajo se centra en: (1) conocer los niveles de sexismo ambivalente en profesionales de salud mental, (2) analizar la asociación entre sexismo y características sociodemográficas y de perspectiva de género y (3) estudiar la asociación entre sexismo y detección de desigualdad de género en consulta. 449 profesionales de salud mental completaron la Escala de Sexismo Ambivalente, así como otro cuestionario desarrollado ad-hoc. Se realizaron análisis no paramétricos. Los datos mostraron, entre otros aspectos, un nivel bajo de sexismo en la muestra, así como que las y los profesionales que manifestaron niveles significativamente más bajos de sexismo, detectaron más problemas de desigualdad en consulta. Los resultados subrayan la importancia de reducir el sexismo de las y los profesionales para identificar los problemas de desigualdad de género (AU)

Some organizations recommend that healthcare professionals overcome their own sexist beliefs and emphasize the importance of dealing with gender inequality. Thus, this study focused on: (1) find out the levels of ambivalent sexism in a network of mental health professionals in Spain, (2) analyze the association between sexism, sociodemographic cha-racteristics and gender perspective, and (3) study the association between sexism and gender inequality detection during clinical attention. The sample was comprised of 449 mental health professionals who filled in the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory and another ad hoc questionnaire developed. Variables were compared by nonparametric analysis. The data showed low levels of sexism in the sample, and that the professionals who obtained lower levels of sexism found more problems related to gender inequality during clinical attention. The results underline the importance of intervention for reducing sexism of professionals in order to contribute to a more unbiased detection of problems of gender inequality (AU)

Links among Ambivalent sexism, Gender Role Ideology and domestic and care work in Argentinian households

Abstract The present empirical study inquires on the relations among sexism, gender role ideology and domestic and care work in heterosexual women who share a home with their couples and at least one child, in CABA and GBA (Argentina) in 2019. Two previously existent (Moya, Expósito & Padilla, 2006; Glick & Fiske, 1996) and validated in Argentina scales were used, and a new scale for measuring domestic and care activities was created. A correlational and transversal study with a quantitative approach was carried out, and the data was recollected through an auto-administrated evaluation instrument sent by Facebook and Whatsapp social media. The sample includes 437 cases. Regarding the constructed scale, reliability, exploratory and confirmatory analysis were performed. Additionally, a moderate positive correlation among the dependent and independent variables was identified. It is possible to suggest that the hypothesis presented in this study is partially corroborated, that is, that the domestic and care work type of division is explained by the level of adhesion to the Gender Role Ideology.

Resumen El presente estudio empírico indaga respecto a las relaciones entre el sexismo, la adhesión a la ideología del rol de género y la división del trabajo doméstico y de cuidados en mujeres heterosexuales que viven en pareja y tienen al menos une hije compartiendo el mismo hogar, en CABA y GBA (Argentina) en 2019. Se utilizaron dos escalas existentes (Moya, Expósito y Padilla, 2006; Glick y Fiske, 1996) previamente validadas en Argentina, y se construyó una escala nueva para medir las tareas domésticas y de cuidado. Se realizó un estudio correlacional de corte transversal con un abordaje cuantitativo y los datos fueron recolectados a través de un instrumento de evaluación de índole autoadministrable mediante las redes sociales Facebook y Whatsapp. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 437 casos. Se realizaron los correspondientes análisis de fiabilidad, exploratorio y confirmatorio para la escala construida. Asimismo, se identificó una correlación positiva moderada entre la variable dependiente y las variables independientes. Es posible sugerir que se corrobora parcialmente la hipótesis planteada en este trabajo, es decir, que el tipo de división del trabajo doméstico y de cuidados se explica por el nivel de adhesión a la ideología del rol de género.

Ideology, sexism, and beliefs about sexual violence in Peruvian university students and future police officers

Abstract The main objective of the present study is to establish a comparison between ideology (RWA and SDO), ambivalent sexism and beliefs about sexual violence, in a sample of Peruvian trainee from a police officer school (n = 81) and university students (n = 196). In addition, as a specific objective, it seeks to explore the relationships between the mentioned variables. The results showed significant differences between the groups at the level of the RWA (Right Wing Authoritarianism) ideological variable and the Subordination of women dimension of the Beliefs about Sexual Violence variable. Likewise, the structural model shows that the variables RWA and SDO (Social Dominance Orientation) have an impact on the dimensions of beliefs about sexual violence: Attribution of blame to women, Subordination of women and Exaggeration of women, having as mediators Benevolent and Hostile Sexism. The results show that beliefs about sexual violence in the sample of this study link to sexism and these, in turn, to ideology; however, the routes in which these beliefs are configured vary between police trainee and university students. Higher levels of RWA are observed in police trainee, an ideological indicator that, in this sample, paradoxically tends to be inversely related to sexism and beliefs about sexual violence against women that blame and subordinate them. Regarding the path of social dominance, this also directly relates to both expressions of benevolent and hostile sexism, although with greater predominance with the second, appealing to sex as a structural element on which this ideological component is established.

Resumen El presente estudio tiene como objetivo principal establecer una comparación entre la ideología (RWA y SDO), el sexismo ambivalente y las creencias sobre la violencia sexual, en una muestra de cadetes de una escuela de oficiales (n=81) y estudiantes universitarios (n=196). Además, como objetivo específico, busca explorar las relaciones entre dichas variables. Los resultados demostraron diferencias significativas entre los grupos a nivel de la variable ideológica RWA (Right Wing. Authoritarianism) y la dimensión Subordinación de la mujer de la variable Creencias sobre la Violencia Sexual. Asimismo, el modelo estructural evidencia que las variables RWA y SDO (Social Dominance Orientation) afectan las dimensiones de creencias sobre la violencia sexual: Atribución de la culpa a la mujer, Subordinación de la mujer y Exageración de la mujer teniendo como mediadores al Sexismo Benevolente y Hostil. Los resultados muestran que las creencias sobre violencia sexual en la muestra están vinculadas al sexismo y estas, a la ideología también; sin embargo, los recorridos en que estas creencias se configuran varían entre estudiantes de policía y estudiantes universitarios. En estudiantes de policía se observan niveles más altos de RWA, indicador ideológico que, en esta muestra, paradójicamente tiende a estar inversamente relacionado con el sexismo y creencias sobre la violencia sexual contra las mujeres que las culpan y subordinan. En cuanto al camino del SDO, también está directamente relacionado con expresiones de sexismo benevolente y hostil, aunque con mayor predominio con el segundo, apelando al sexo como elemento estructural sobre el que se establece este componente ideológico.

Recursos de legitimación en torno a prácticas encubiertas de dominación masculina en la sociedad costarricense. Subterfugios de una hegemonía en declive / Legitimation Resources Around Male Domination Practices in Costa Rican Society. Subterfuges of a Declining Hegemony

Resumen A través de las siguientes líneas, se pretende, con un recorrido por algunos términos y autores característicos de los estudios de hombres y masculinidades, explorar elementos con respecto a manifestaciones y dinámicas de dominación masculina actual. Primero, es importante revisar algunos conceptos, en especial, desde la teoría del sexismo ambivalente de Glick y Fiske, seguido de algunas derivaciones de este planteamiento para el correspondiente análisis. De forma posterior, se esboza cómo el machismo se conserva institucionalmente desde componentes básicos estables en la historia: androcentrismo, misoginia, homofobia y falocentrismo. Al final, se plantean algunas reflexiones básicas acerca de desarticular encargos de masculinidad hegemónica en la sociedad. Más que una desaparición de patrones machistas, el patriarcado, como estructura colectiva, se adecua a diferentes escenarios relacionados con el contexto social. Esto se asocia siempre, en cada época histórica, a la dificultad por cuestionarle en los grupos sociales donde se sustenta. Incentivar en los hombres una consciencia crítica del fenómeno, fomentar una acción trasformadora y ser protagonistas en un proceso de deconstrucción de las normas masculinas tradicionales es vital en un proceso de desarticulación del sistema patriarcal como primera entrada y, por ende, la construcción de un sistema social igualitario consciente de diversidades en género.

Abstract: In the following lines, we intend to tour some terms and authors characteristic of the studies of men and masculinities, to explore elements regarding manifestations and dynamics of current male domination. First, it is important to review some concepts especially from the theory of ambivalent sexism of Glick and Fiske, followed by some derivations of this approach for the corresponding analysis. Subsequently, we outline how machismo is conserved institutionally from stable core components in history: androcentrism, misogyny, homophobia and phallocentrism. In the end, we raise some basic reflections about disarticulating orders of hegemonic masculinity in society. Rather than a disappearance of macho patterns, patriarchy as a collective structure adapts to different scenarios related to the social context. This is always associated, in each historical era, with the difficulty of questioning it in the social groups that sustain it. Thus, it is of primordial importance to encourage in men a critical awareness of the phenomenon, to promote a transformative action and be protagonists in a process of deconstruction of traditional male norms; these are vital, in a process of disarticulation of the patriarchal system and, thus, allowing the construction of an egalitarian social system aware of gender diversity.

Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente: Invarianza factorial entre géneros y relación con la violencia de pareja / Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Factorial invariance by gender and relation with intimate partner violence

La Teoría del Sexismo Ambivalente propone que el sexismo es un constructo multidimensional compuesto por dos tipos de creencias sexistas, unas de carácter hostil y otras de tipo benevolente. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue analizar la estructura factorial del instrumento derivado de esta teoría, su invarianza factorial entre géneros y su relación con la violencia de pareja. Mediante un formulario en internet, 745 participantes de ambos sexos de población general de Argentina, con edades comprendidas entre 18 y 45 años, respondieron el Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente (ISA) (Glick & Fiske, 1996). El ISA demostró puntuaciones y una estructura factorial invariantes entre hombres y mujeres. La relación entre las puntuaciones en el ISA y la violencia de pareja varió en función del tipo de violencia considerado (amenazas vs. violencia física) y el género del miembro de la pareja. Las puntuaciones en Sexismo Hostil fueron mayores en las mujeres que ejercieron violencia física comparadas con otras mujeres, pero no en los hombres. También fueron superiores en quienes sufrieron esta conducta, tanto hombres como mujeres. Se discuten las implicancias de estos resultados a la luz de estudios previos que emplean el ISA, principalmente en población de habla hispana.

The Ambivalent Sexism Theory proposes that sexism is a multidimensional construct composed of two types of sexist beliefs, on the one hand, hostile and, on the other hand, benevolent. The first refers to negative attitudes towards women as weak and inferior to men, and the second refers to the set of sexist attitudes towards women considering them stereotyped and limited to certain roles (i.e. mother, wife, and housewife). The main objective of this study was to analyse the factor structure and factorial invariance by gender of the instrument derived from this theory and its concurrent validity with a measure of intimate partner physical violence. Another objective of the study was to establish comparisons in ISA scores by gender and cross-culturally. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) (Glick & Fiske, 1996) was answered through an online form by 745 participants of both sexes from an Argentinean general population sample aged between 18 and 45 years old. By means of a confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis the data in this sample showed a good adjustment to the ASI structure proposed by its authors, this is a one-dimensional factor (SH) and three subfactors (protective paternalism, complementary gender differentiation and heterosexual intimacy) that make up the second-order factor SB. This factorial structure remained invariant when discriminating between men and women. The correlation between both factors was robust and significant (r = .68) both in the general sample, and differentiating by gender. The reliability of the factors and subfactors was between a moderate and high level (α = .62 to .91). No significant differences were found between men and women in the mean scores of the ASI factors and subfactors. Approximately 1 in 3 subjects reported having perpetrated or suffered intimate partner physical violence. In general terms, those who have perpetrated or have suffered violence had higher scores in SH and SB that those who did not, but this effect was only significant in the case of women. The relationships found between ASI scores and intimate partner physical violence varied by gender and violence directionality (suffered or perpetrated). The ASI scores were lower in countries close to Argentina probably due to a sample mainly composed by young women with a high education level. Our results support the idea that ambivalent sexism is an invariable transcultural construct between men and women, and that the ISA is avalid and reliable measure in the Argentine population. The limitations of results are discussed and the implications are analyses in light of previous studies using the ASI, mainly in Spanish-speaking population.

Sexismo ambivalente y su relación con la aceptación de mitos sobre la violencia sexual en una muestra de Lima

La presente investigación analiza la relación entre el sexismo ambivalente y la aceptación de mitos sobre la violencia sexual, así como las diferencias en cuanto a variables sociodemográficas en una muestra de Lima (N= 304). Los resultados indican que el sexismo benevolente resulta el mejor predictor para la aceptación de mitos sobre la violencia sexual. De igual forma, los hombres, las personas de mayor edad y aquellas con menor nivel educativo presentan una mayor tendencia a la aceptación de mitos sobre la violencia sexual.

This research analyzes the relationship between ambivalent sexism and the sexual violence myths acceptance, as well as differences in sociodemographic variables in a sample of Lima (N = 304). The results indicate that benevolent sexism is the best predictor for acceptance of sexual violence myths. Additionally, men, older people and people with less education would be more likely to accept sexual violence myths.

Esta pesquisa analisa a relação entre o sexismo ambivalente, a aceitação de mitos sobre a violência sexual e um conjunto de variáveis sócio-demográficas em uma amostra de pessoas da cidade de Lima-Peru (n=304). Os resultados indicam que o sexismo benevolente é o melhor preditor da aceitação dos mitos sobre a violência sexual. Além disso, as pessoas do gênero masculino, com maior idade e com menor nível educativo são aquelas que apresentam maior aceitação dos mitos sobre a violência sexual.

Adaptação dos inventários de sexismo moderno para Portugal: o inventário de sexismo ambivalente e o inventário de ambivalência em relação aos homens / Adaptation of the modern sexism inventories to Portugal: the ambivalent sexism inventory and the ambivalence toward men inventory

A relação entre homens e mulheres é única e composta por desigualdade e preconceito dirigido aos membros do sexo oposto. Enquanto a forma hostil de sexismo foi já muito estudada, o sexismo moderno é caracterizado pela simultaneidade de formas hostis e benevolentes de preconceito, e por isso conceitualizado como Sexismo Ambivalente. O objetivo deste estudo foi adaptar o Inventário de Sexismo Ambivalente (ASI) e o Inventário de Ambivalência em relação aos Homens (AMI) para a população Portuguesa, e avaliar as suas propriedades psicométricas. Ambos os inventários foram administrados a 258 estudantes universitários (31% homens e 69% mulheres), com uma média de idade de 27 anos. As análises fatoriais confirmatórias revelaram evidência da multidimensionalidade de ambos os inventários, validade fatorial, convergente e discriminante, e fiabilidade interna. Os homens revelaram níveis mais elevados de hostilidade e de benevolência dirigido às mulheres, as mulheres revelaram maiores níveis de hostilidade dirigida aos homens. A hostilidade em relação aos homens aumentou com a idade, enquanto a benevolência diminuiu. O preconceito hostil e benevolente foi maior em pessoas com menos anos de escolaridade. Religiosidade correlacionou significativamente com os índices de sexismo benevolente. Foi assim demonstrada a validade e confiabilidade da adaptação dos Inventários de Sexismo Moderno em Portugal.(AU)

The relationship between men and women is rather unique and composed by inequality and prejudice towards members of the opposite sex. Whilst hostile sexism has been well studied, modern sexism is characterized by the simultaneity of hostile and benevolent forms of prejudice, therefore conceptualized as Ambivalent Sexism. The purpose of this study was to adapt the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) and the Ambivalence toward Men Inventory (AMI) to the Portuguese population and evaluate their psychometric properties. Both inventories were administrated to 258 university students (31% male and 69% female) with a mean age of 27 years. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the multidimensionality of both inventories and provided evidence of factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity, and internal reliability. Men revealed higher levels of hostility and benevolence toward women, whereas women revealed higher levels of hostility toward men. Hostility toward men increased with age whereas benevolence decreased. Hostile and benevolent prejudice was higher in participants with less education. Religiosity was correlated with benevolent sexism. This study showed the validity and reliability of Modern Sexism Inventories in Portugal.(AU)

Adaptação dos inventários de sexismo moderno para Portugal: o inventário de sexismo ambivalente e o inventário de ambivalência em relação aos homens / Adaptation of the modern sexism inventories to Portugal: the ambivalent sexism inventory and the ambivalence toward men inventory

A relação entre homens e mulheres é única e composta por desigualdade e preconceito dirigido aos membros do sexo oposto. Enquanto a forma hostil de sexismo foi já muito estudada, o sexismo moderno é caracterizado pela simultaneidade de formas hostis e benevolentes de preconceito, e por isso conceitualizado como Sexismo Ambivalente. O objetivo deste estudo foi adaptar o Inventário de Sexismo Ambivalente (ASI) e o Inventário de Ambivalência em relação aos Homens (AMI) para a população Portuguesa, e avaliar as suas propriedades psicométricas. Ambos os inventários foram administrados a 258 estudantes universitários (31% homens e 69% mulheres), com uma média de idade de 27 anos. As análises fatoriais confirmatórias revelaram evidência da multidimensionalidade de ambos os inventários, validade fatorial, convergente e discriminante, e fiabilidade interna. Os homens revelaram níveis mais elevados de hostilidade e de benevolência dirigido às mulheres, as mulheres revelaram maiores níveis de hostilidade dirigida aos homens. A hostilidade em relação aos homens aumentou com a idade, enquanto a benevolência diminuiu. O preconceito hostil e benevolente foi maior em pessoas com menos anos de escolaridade. Religiosidade correlacionou significativamente com os índices de sexismo benevolente. Foi assim demonstrada a validade e confiabilidade da adaptação dos Inventários de Sexismo Moderno em Portugal.

The relationship between men and women is rather unique and composed by inequality and prejudice towards members of the opposite sex. Whilst hostile sexism has been well studied, modern sexism is characterized by the simultaneity of hostile and benevolent forms of prejudice, therefore conceptualized as Ambivalent Sexism. The purpose of this study was to adapt the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) and the Ambivalence toward Men Inventory (AMI) to the Portuguese population and evaluate their psychometric properties. Both inventories were administrated to 258 university students (31% male and 69% female) with a mean age of 27 years. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the multidimensionality of both inventories and provided evidence of factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity, and internal reliability. Men revealed higher levels of hostility and benevolence toward women, whereas women revealed higher levels of hostility toward men. Hostility toward men increased with age whereas benevolence decreased. Hostile and benevolent prejudice was higher in participants with less education. Religiosity was correlated with benevolent sexism. This study showed the validity and reliability of Modern Sexism Inventories in Portugal.

Relaciones entre el sexismo ambivalente, el conservadurismo político y la rigidez cognitiva en una muestra de habitantes de la ciudad de Lima / Relationships between ambivalent sexism, political conservatism and cognitive rigidity in a sample of inhabitants from the city of Lima

Este estudio analiza la relación entre el conservadurismo político, la rigidez cognitiva y el sexismo ambivalente en una muestra de adultos jóvenes de la ciudad de Lima (N = 279). Para evaluar el conservadu- rismo político se utilizaron medidas de autoritarismo de ala derecha (RWA ), orientación hacia la dominancia social (SDO) y justificación de la inequidad. La rigidez cognitiva fue evaluada a través de la intolerancia a la ambigüedad, la intolerancia a la incertidumbre, la necesidad de cierre cognitivo y la apertura a la experiencia. Se utilizó una versión traducida al castellano del inventario de sexismo ambivalente. Se encontró una relación directa entre el conservadurismo político, la rigidez cognitiva, el sexismo hostil y el sexismo benevolente. Un análisis de regresión lineal mostró que el RWA , la SDO y la intolerancia a la ambigüedad ejercen influencia directa sobre el sexismo hostil, mientras que el sexismo benevolente recibe la influencia directa del RWA y la justificación de la inequidad. Los hombres puntuaron más alto en el sexismo hostil, mientras que las mujeres lo hicieron en una de las tres dimensiones del sexismo benevolente.

This study analyzes the relationship between political conservatism, cognitive rigidity and ambivalent sexism in a sample of young adults of the city of Lima (N = 279) . Political conservatism was assessed by measures of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), social dominance orientation (SDO) and justification of inequality. Cognitive rigidity was evaluated through intolerance to ambiguity, intolerance to uncertainty, need for cognitive closure and openness to experience. A Spanish translation of ambivalent sexism inventory was also used. A direct relationship between political conservatism, cognitive rigidity, and hostile and benevolent sexism was found. A multiple linear regression analysis showed that RWA , SDO and intolerance of ambiguity exert influence on hostile sexism. On the other hand, benevolent sexism was inuflenced by RWA and justification of inequality. Men scored higher on hostile sexism while women showed higher scores on one of the three dimensions of benevolent sexism.

Nivel de sexism en consumidores y su valoración sexista de la publicidad / Sexismin consumeers and their sexist asessenn

En esta investigación se identifica la relación que existe entre la puntuación obtenida por consumidores de medios televisivos, en el Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente (ASI; Glick & Fiske, 1996. Adaptado por Expósito, Moya & Glick, 1998) y la valoración que estos hacen del nivel de sexismo de 14 comerciales de televisión transmitidos en los principales canales privados nacionales. El estudio se llevó a cabo con 100 participantes, de ambos géneros, con edades entre 18 y 60 años de los estratos 4, 5, 6, consumidores de medios televisivos. Es un estudio ex post facto, prospectivo de una variable independiente simple (Montero & León, 2007), siendo el nivel de sexismo ambivalente la variable independiente de clasificación y la valoración que se hace de los comerciales la variable dependiente relacionada con los resultados de la primera. Los principales hallazgos evidencian una relación inversa, estadísticamente significativa, entre el nivel de sexismo ambivalente en su medida de diferenciación complementaria de género y la percepción del sexismo en la publicidad, no encontrándose un efecto estadísticamente significativo con el sexo, la edad y otras variables demográficas.

This research identifies the relationship between the score for consumers of television media in Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI, Glick and Fiske, 1996. Adapt. Expósito et al., 1998) and they valuation around level of sexism than 14 television commercials broadcast in the national channels. The study was conducted with 100 participants, of both genders, aged between 18 and 60 years of strata 4, 5, 6, consumers of television media. It is an ex post facto study, a prospective with single independent variable (Montero & Leon, 2007). The level of ambivalent sexism is the independent variable by classification and the valuation of commercial is the dependent variable. The main findings show an interaction statistically significant between level of ambivalent sexism in the component of gender differentiation and the perception of sexism in advertising, but without a statistically significant effect with gender, age and other demographic variables.

Estereotipos femeninos y preferencia de consumo / Women's stereotypes and consumer preferences

De acuerdo a la teoría del Sexismo Ambivalente (Glick y Fiske, 1996) existen estereotipos diferenciados de mujeres hacia los que los hombres manifiestan distintas actitudes. Entre los subtipos de mujeres destacan el ama de casa, la mujer sexy y la profesional. Mediante un estudio con 100 participantes se investigó la relación entre estos tres tipos de mujeres, su nivel de influencia y prestigio, y la preferencia por un producto (descrito en términos estereotípicamente masculinos y femeninos). Los resultados mostraron que la Mujer Sexy es más asociada a la Descripción Masculina, mientras que la Mujer Profesional lo es a la Descripción Femenina; el Ama de Casa es la menos asociada a las dos descripciones del producto. Se encontró también que la influencia y el prestigio median la relación entre los tres tipos de mujeres y la preferencia atribuida de cada una de ellas por el producto descrito en términos femeninos.

According to The Ambivalent Sexism Theory (Glick y Fiske, 1996) there are distinct stereotypes of women that men express different attitudes. Among them, the housewife, sexy women and executive women are the clearest ones. One hundred people participated in the present study in order to test the relationship between the female stereotypes, their level of influence and prestige and the level of preference for a commercial product (described in female and male terms). The results showed that sexy women is more associated with the masculine description, whereas the executive women is more associated to the feminine product description, and in both cases the housewife is the least associated with the two different descriptions. It was also found that the influence and the women prestige mediated the relationship between the stereotypes and the preference shown for the product described in feminine terms.

Precisão preditiva das novas formas de sexismo a partir das orientações valorativas em brasileiros / Exactitud de predicción de las nuevas formas de sexismo a partir de las orientaciones de valoración en brasileños / Prediction accuracy in the new forms of sexism based of the human values orientation in brazilian

Os valores humanos têm revelado seguras explicações quanto a manifestação e manutenção dos fenômenos psicossociais, principalmente, a respeito do preconceito feminino. Tal fato se deve por que o construto dos valores é capaz de orientar escolhas, atitudes, avaliação comportamental e situações sociais nas relações interpessoais. Com isso, é bem possível que exista uma base normativa que guie as atitudes e comportamentos preconceituosos frente às mulheres. Amostras com sujeitos entre 18 a 56 anos de idade e ambos os sexos, da cidade de João Pessoa (Brasil) compuseram o estudo. Responderam o inventário de sexismo ambivalente, valores humanos e dados sociodemográficos. Os resultados se revelaram bem semelhante aos encontrados em estudos anteriores, bem como, na sequência das amostras: tendo o critério de orientação valorativa pessoal explicando o sexismo hostil e benévolo, e o social, apenas com o benévolo.

The human values have disclosed to safe explanations how much the manifestation and maintenance of this psicossocial problem, mainly, about the feminine prejudice. Such fact if must for being this construct able guiding choices, attitudes, behavior assessment and social situations. It is well possible that exists a normative base that guides the attitudes and behaviors against the women. Samples composed this study, citizens with age between 18 and 56 years of both the gender, of the cities of João Pessoa (Brazil) having as respondent of the inventory of ambivalent sexism, human values and partner-demographic data. The results have proved well similar to those found in previous studies and, in the sequence of the samples: the criterion of personal values of orientation explained the hostile sexism and benevolent, and the social one, only with benevolent.

Los valores humanos han demostrado una explicación cuanto a la manifestación y el mantenimiento de los fenómenos psicosociales, principalmente sobre el prejuicio femenino. Esto es debido a la construcción de los valores ser capaz de orientar las decisiones en las actitudes, la evaluación del comportamiento y las situaciones sociales en las relaciones interpersonales. Por lo tanto, es muy posible que exista una base normativa para orientar las actitudes y comportamientos de prejuicios contra las mujeres. Las muestras con la gente que van desde 18 hasta 56 años de edad y de ambos los sexos, en la ciudad de João Pessoa (Brasil), formó el estudio. Dijeron al inventario de sexismo ambivalente, los valores humanos y de datos socio-demográficos. Los resultados fueron muy similares a los encontrados en estudios previos, así como la secuencia de las muestras: tomar la señal para la valoración personal de sexismo hostil y benévolo de explicar, y social, solamente con los benévolos.

Valores humanos e sexismo ambivalente / Human values and ambivalent sexism

O preconceito, independente do grupo em que se encontre o indivíduo, é um fenômeno antigo. Atualmente, é possível observar que algumas práticas discriminatórias vêm assumindo novas facetas, não ocorrendo a sua diminuição, mas a apresentação de uma versão sutil. Uma das promissoras explicações deste problema centra-se nos valores humanos, principalmente porque esse construto é capaz de orientar escolhas, atitudes, avaliação comportamental e situações sociais. 200 graduandos, de ambos os sexos, do curso de Psicologia de uma Universidade privada responderam coletivamente nas salas de aula o inventário de sexismo ambivalente, valores humanos e dados sócio-demográficos. Observou-se que o critério de orientação valorativa pessoal relacionou-se com o sexismo hostil e benévolo, já o social apenas com o benévolo. Os valores que visam um individualismo foram capazes de fomentar tanto o preconceito sutil quanto tradicional, e que os que apontam para uma orientação social, salientou também uma discriminação sutil.

The Prejudice, independent of the group to which the individual belongs, is a very old phenomenon. Presently it is possible to observe that some discriminatory practices are assuming new faces. Rather than diminishing prejudice, they present subtle, camouflaged versions. One promising explanation of this problem is centered in human values, because this construct is capable of orientating choices, attitudes, value judgments, and social situations. 200 students of both sexes graduating from the Psychology course of a private university answered the inventory of sexual ambivalence, basic human values and socio-demographic data was collectively given in the classroom. It was observed that personal value orientation related to hostile and benevolent sexism, while social value orientation related only to benevolent sexism. Thus, values which favor individualism were capable of fomenting a subtle prejudice as well as traditional prejudice, which points to the significance of social orientation and subtle discrimination.

A orientação valorativa na manutenção do preconceito feminino: consistência correlacional entre os valores humanos e sexismo ambivalente / Values of the orientation as maintenance of the feminine preconception: consistency correlactional between ambivalent sexism and human values

Muito tem buscado explicar a respeito do problema do preconceito, principalmente, o feminino; os valores humanos têm revelado seguras explicações quanto a manifestação e manutenção deste fenômeno. Tal fato se deve por que o construto dos valores é capaz de orientar escolhas, atitudes, avaliação comportamental e situações sociais nas relações interpessoais. Com isso, é bem possível que exista uma base normativa que guie as atitudes e comportamentos preconceituosos frente as mulheres. No presente estudo duas amostras, uma com 668 sujeitos e outra 795, com idade de 18 a 56 anos e ambos os sexos, das cidades de Palmas e João Pessoa. Estes responderam o inventário de sexismo ambivalente, valores humanos e dados sócio-demográficos. Os resultados se revelaram bem semelhante aos encontrados em estudos anteriores que relacionam sexismo e valores. Assim, o critério de orientação valorativa pessoal explicou o sexismo hostil e benévolo, e o social, apenas com o benévolo

Much has search to explain about the problem of the preconception; the human values have disclosed to safeexplanations how much the manifestation and maintenance of this problem. Such fact if must for being thisconstruct able guiding choices, attitudes, mannering evaluation and social situations. It is well possible thatexists a normative base that guides the attitudes and behaviors against to women. Two samples had composedthis study, having as respondent of the inventory of ambivalent sexism, human values and partner-demographic data, citizens with age between 18 and 56 years of both the sexs, of the cities of Palmas andJoão Pessoa. The results if had disclosed well similar to the joined one in studies that relate preconceptionand values. The criterion of personal values of orientation explained the hostile sexism and benevolent, andthe social one, only with benevolent